With IOS 18 you probably have heard about "eye-tracking." However, this post is not about IOS 18 and the features of navigation with the eyes. I would like to explain the history of this term and its relation to neuromarketing.

A little bit of history

Technological advancements and the growing accessibility of research tools like eye trackers and EEG in non-medical disciplines have opened new cognitive avenues, particularly in humanities. In linguistics, language didactics, and translation studies, these technologies expand research boundaries. One notable method used in translation studies for over a decade is eye tracking.

Eye tracking devices trace eye movements, and specialized software processes this data for scientific interpretation. The underlying assumption is that eye movements correlate with mental processes. Since sight is a dominant sense for humans, transmitting information to the brain at a speed of 10 million bits per second, it plays a crucial role in how we perceive the world. Visual stimuli occupy significant portions of the cerebral cortex, making vision a key channel for understanding human behavior, which is why eye tracking has gained popularity.

Eye tracking technology, though modern in its current applications, traces its origins to the 19th century. Early studies on eye movements during reading, such as those by Louis Émile Javal in the 1870s, revealed that reading was not a continuous process but involved short, rapid movements (saccades) and pauses (fixations). Javal's work, though attributed with early eye-tracking research, was based on experiments conducted by his colleague, M. Lamare. Lamare used a mechanical device that captured eye movements by sound, which was innovative for the time.

Later, in the 1890s, E. Huey and E.B. Delabarre advanced eye movement studies with more invasive techniques, using devices like contact lenses or gypsum caps. These early methods, while groundbreaking, were uncomfortable for participants, often requiring anesthesia.

The first non-invasive eye tracker was developed in 1901 by R. Dodge and T.S. Cline, marking the beginning of optical eye tracking. Their device used light reflected from the cornea to record eye movements, though it only tracked horizontal movements. Despite its limitations, this invention revolutionized the field, making optical methods popular and advancing our understanding of visual perception during tasks like reading.

The development of eye-tracking technology advanced significantly after R. Dodge and T.S. Cline's work, with further breakthroughs in the early 20th century. In 1905, Judd, McAlister, and Steel introduced a device that could record both horizontal and vertical eye movements by reflecting light from the eye onto photosensitive tape. Although it required the subject’s head to remain still, this non-contact method laid the groundwork for later research.

And more history…

The second era of eye-tracking research began in the 1920s with the introduction of film-based recording techniques, which allowed for non-invasive tracking of eye movements. Concurrently, electrooculography emerged, utilizing the electrical potential between the cornea and retina to track eye movements with greater precision.

This period focused mainly on the mechanics of eye movements rather than cognitive processes. Researchers like M.A. Tinker and G.T. Buswell used photographic techniques to study how font type, size, and page layout affected reading behavior. Buswell also developed the first non-contact device to register eye movements, enabling two-dimensional tracking of a single eye. His apparatus allowed for flexible testing environments and enhanced the study of how people read text and view images.

In the mid-20th century, eye-tracking technology saw notable advancements. In 1947, P.M. Fitts and colleagues used film cameras to study eye movements in pilots, and in 1948, H. Hartridge and L.C. Thompson developed a head-mounted device that allowed subjects to move freely while tracking their eye movements. This was a major improvement over earlier methods, which required subjects to remain still.

By the 1960s, mobile eye-tracker technology emerged, developed by B. Shackel, N.H. Mackworth, and E.L. Thomas. These devices became less cumbersome for subjects, improving the comfort of the experiments. Another key innovation, suggested by J.F. and N.H. Mackworth in 1958, allowed researchers to record eye movements while simultaneously capturing the scene the subject was viewing, making it easier to interpret the results.

However, invasive methods resurfaced during the 1960s with A.L. Yarbus, a Soviet biophysicist, who used a rubber suction cap attached to the sclera to record eye movements. Though highly uncomfortable for participants, Yarbus’s experiments produced important findings. He demonstrated that eye movements were task-dependent, meaning that the subject’s goal influenced where they focused their gaze. His research showed that people tend to focus on faces, especially the eyes, mouth, and nose, when viewing portraits. This was famously illustrated in his study using the sculpture of Nefertiti, where viewers concentrated primarily on the profile and eyes.

And one more…

The third phase of eye-tracking research, starting in the mid-1970s, marked significant advancements influenced by the rise of cognitive psychology. Researchers began to explore the relationship between perception and concurrent mental processes. This phase also coincided with the development of linguistic theories, extending eye-tracking research into areas like text perception and language processing.

Earlier, contact lenses with electromagnetic coils were used for eye-tracking, but the method had a major drawback: the data required long processing times. The 1960s saw the creation of the first eye-tracking device resembling modern systems, called the "oculometer." Developed for the U.S. Air Force, it used computer algorithms to track the iris and gaze direction, setting the foundation for today's computer-based eye trackers. Despite this, some medical researchers still employ older technologies like electromagnetic induction or electrooculography.

In the 1970s, two mobile eye trackers were developed simultaneously by the U.S. Air Force (via Honeywell Corporation) and the U.S. Army (via EG&G Corporation). These models marked a significant advancement in eye-tracking technology, allowing for faster data processing and automatic analysis during experiments, thus reducing the strain on test subjects.

This era also saw an increase in studies influenced by cognitive psychology, focusing on the correlation between eye fixations and cognitive processes. Key researchers like M.A. Just, P.A. Carpenter, K. Rayner, and others contributed to the development of theoretical models that linked eye movements with mental functions. Additionally, important work was done in analyzing eye-tracking results and visual imaging in relation to eye positioning.

In 1998, K. Rayner published a comprehensive study titled "Eye Movements in Reading and Information Processing: 20 Years of Research", summarizing eye-tracking research from the mid-1970s to the 1990s. This work emphasized the evolution of eye-tracking technology and its use in understanding reading processes, focusing on Rayner's own work and contributions from other researchers.

The next stage of eye-tracking research emerged in the 1990s, driven by advances in technology and computing power, allowing for greater tolerance of head movement and broader applications across various fields. This period saw a significant increase in institutional eye-tracking research, as universities and companies began to invest in this methodology. Eye-tracking technology began to be applied in many sectors beyond psychology and neurology, including consumer behavior, aviation, and the arts.

With the growth in research output, companies like iMotions noted a sharp rise in the number of published studies on eye-tracking, with Google Scholar showing a dramatic increase in articles since the 1970s. Eye-tracking became widely used in commercial and scientific fields, expanding the research landscape into areas such as visual perception, aesthetic experiences, and consumer studies.

Neuromarketing - what is that?

Marketing uses eye tracking very successfully. There is a separate field, which is called neuromarketing. Neuromarketing is a marketing approach that integrates neuroscience to understand and influence consumer behavior, focusing on unconscious decision-making processes. Techniques like brain imaging (fMRI), biometrics (e.g., skin conductance, heart rate), and eye tracking are used to study consumer reactions to marketing stimuli, such as ads and product packaging. Eye tracking, for instance, analyzes gaze patterns to determine which elements of an ad capture attention and are remembered. Neuromarketing is increasingly popular, with companies like Nielsen and Ipsos using these techniques to refine marketing strategies and enhance consumer engagement.

The term "neuromarketing" was introduced in 2002 by Ale Smidts, who defined it as the study of brain mechanisms to better understand consumer behavior and improve marketing strategies. Traditional marketing methods often focused on rational decision-making models, but neuromarketing recognizes that most decisions are driven by subconscious processes, with 95% of decision-making happening unconsciously. Neuromarketing uses different techniques offering insights beyond what traditional methods like surveys and focus groups can provide.

Eye tracking, in particular, has emerged as a powerful tool in neuromarketing. It measures visual attention and can track where consumers look and how long they focus on certain elements of ads or packaging. This is crucial in today's marketplace, where consumers are bombarded with information, and brands must capture attention within seconds.

By analyzing eye movements and fixations, marketers can understand how consumers compare products and what visual elements are most important in their decision-making process. Eye tracking helps brands optimize their packaging and ads, making them more visually appealing and effective in grabbing attention in competitive retail environments. Additionally, research shows that visual attention toward brand-related elements, like labels, correlates with consumer attitudes toward the brand, making eye tracking a valuable tool for improving marketing strategies.

I hope this post was interesting and helpful. You can find much more information and research related to both eye-tracking and neuromarketing. The main aim of this post was to introduce these terms to you and try shortly explain their genesis. If you want to know more feel free to contact me via email.

xxx, M